Search Results for: data communication

What is a Potential Transformer?-Definition, Construction, Working, And Types

August 27, 2022 by Adeel Abbas Leave a Comment

A potential transformer is a transformer that is used for the protection and measurement of the power systems. In Power System, a potential transformer is used to measure the high alternating voltage.

What is a Potential Transformer?

Transformers are passive instruments that use the principle of electromagnetism to transmit electrical power from one circuit to another one. One of the two coils is the primary section and the other is the secondary coil. There is no magnetic part in the coils and they are both magnetically combined.

The transformer uses a mutual induction to transmit electricity from one winding to another coil. During the energy transformation, there is no variation in the frequencies. According to the core construction, there are two classes of transformers: core types and shell types.

They are categorized into step-up and step-down transformers based on their winnings and voltage rating conversion. Potential transformers, power transformers, autotransformers, and three-phase transformers are some of the different types of transformers that are applied in AC networks. We are going to discuss potential transformers completely in this post.

Potential Transformer Construction

The potential transformer is constructed with a high-quality core that works at a low flux value so that the magnetizing current is very low. The transformer’s terminals have to be constructed so that the change in the voltage rating with load is minimum and the phase shift between the output and input voltages is also minimum.

The primary section has a large number of turns, while the secondary side only has a small number of them. The co-axial arrangement is applied in the potential transformer to reduce the reactance. The price of insulation is reduced by dividing the primary section into different parts, which minimized the insulation between the layers.

Working Principle

The ground and the phase are connected to the potential transformer that is attached to the power network. The primary section of a potential transformer is attached to the high voltage network, and the second section of a potential transformer is connected to a multimeter.

The two sides are joined together by mutual induction and operate on the principle of electromagnetic induction. The secondary side is used to detect the reduced voltages within the primary section and the secondary side is used to detect the reduced voltages outside the primary section and the secondary side is used to detect the reduced voltages outside the primary section and the secondary side is used to Because of the large impedance in the system, the small current moves across the secondary side and performs the same as a transformer with no or low power. This type of transformer work on 50 to 200VA voltage.

Potential Transformers Types

Depending on their function, potential transformers can be classified into the following categories.

Metering voltage transformers
Protection voltage transformers
Electromagnetic Potential Transformers
Capacitive Potential Transformers

Protection Voltage Transformers

These are available in single or three-phase types and work with the highest accuracy. Measuring instruments, relays, and other devices are utilized to perform and monitor them.

Electromagnetic Potential Transformers

The same as the primary transformer, where the primary and secondary sections are wounded on a magnetic center, these are the same. There is a value of above or below 130KV that it operates on. The second section is connected to the ground because the primary section is determined based on the phase. Relay, metering, and high voltage networks are some of the jobs that they are employed in.

Capacitive Potential Transformers

These are also known as capacitive potential transformers or capacitive potential dividers. The primary or secondary sides have a series arrangement of capacitors attached to them. Through the secondary winding, the output value is detected. It is more expensive because it is used for power cable carrier communication.

Applications of a Potential Transformer

Below is a list of the applications of a potential transformer. It is used in

metering and relay circuits
power line carrier communication networks
protection devices electrically
protection of impedance in different applications like the generators
protecting feeders
protection voltage transformers
synchronization of feeders and generators

What is an Optical Amplifier?-Definition, And Types

August 25, 2022 by Adeel Abbas Leave a Comment

An optical amplifier is an extremely important device that supports the long-distance optical communication networks of today and is used to amplify light as it is without converting the optical signal to an electrical signal.

What is an optical amplifier?

An optical amplifier is a device that can amplify an optical signal directly without the need to convert it to an electrical signal. An optical amplifier might be thought of as a laser without an optical cavity, or one in which feedback from the cavity is suppressed.

Types of an optical amplifier

There are three major types of an optical amplifier

Erbium-doped optical fiber amplifiers
Semiconductor optical amplifier
Raman amplifier

Erbium-doped optical fiber amplifiers

The most deployed fiber amplifier is the erbium-doped fiber amplifier, as it coincides with the third transmission window of silica-based optical fiber. The core of a silica fiber is doped with a trivalent erbium ion and can be efficiently pumped with a laser at either 980 or 1480 wavelength areas.

Depending on the application, the amplification region can be anywhere from a few nanometers up to 80 nanometers. In telecommunications calls for Conventional, C-band amplifier, or Long, or L-band amplifier, typical use of the EDFA is from 1525 to 1565 nm. Both of these bands can be amplified by EDFAs, but it’s normal to use two different amplifiers for one band and another for the other.

The L-band amplifier uses a longer length of doped fiber than the C-band amplifier. While still providing a useful amount of gain, the longer length of fiber allows for a lower inversion level to be used, thereby giving emission at longer wavelengths.

Semiconductor Optical Amplifier

The small optical amplifier is powered by an electrical current. It is possible to be less expensive than the EDFA and can be integrated with a variety of electronic devices. The performance is not as close to the EDFA as it could be.

There are higher noise, lower gain, moderate polarization dependence, and high nonlinearity in the SOA. All four types of operations can be conducted with the main advantage being that all of them can be done in a single operation.

This is due to the short upper state lifetime so that the gain reacts rapidly to changes in pump or signal power and the changes of gain also cause phase changes, which can distort the signals. The most serious problem for optical communication applications is presented by this nonlinearity. “Linear optical amplifiers” using gain-clamping techniques have been developed.

Raman Amplifier

The signal is intensified by the amplification of the amplifier’s signal. The amplification effect is achieved by a nonlinear interaction between a signal and a pump laser within an optical fiber. There are two types of amplifiers, distributed and lumped.

A distributed Raman amplifier uses the transmission fiber as the gain medium by multiplexing a pump wavelength with a signal wavelength, while a lumped Raman amplifier uses a dedicated, shorter length of fiber to provide amplification. In the case of a lumped Raman amplifier, a highly nonlinear fiber with a small core is used to increase the interaction between signal and pump wavelengths and therefore reduce the length of fiber required.

The pump light may be coupled into the transmission fiber in the same direction as the signal, in the opposite direction, or both. As the transfer of noise from the pump to the signal is reduced, it is more common for contra-directional pumping.

What are Radio Waves?-Definition, Generation, And Polarization

August 25, 2022 by Adeel Abbas Leave a Comment

The waves that have the longest wavelength in the spectrum are called radio waves. These electromagnetic waves have a range from 300 GHz to 3 kHz and are a kind of radiation.

What are radio waves?

Radio waves can be received by radio receivers and are usually produced by radio transmitters. There are different characteristics of propagation in the Earth’s atmosphere with different frequencies of radio waves.

The long waves are diffracted around obstacles and follow the outline whereas the short waves reflect the ionosphere and get back over the horizon of sky waves. The propagation distance of both waves is limited to the visual horizon as short wavelength waves bend or diffract little and travel in a line of sight.

Generation of radio Waves

Radio waves can be picked up by charged particles when they are accelerated. Natural sources of radio waves include radio noise produced by lightning and other natural processes in the Earth’s atmosphere, as well as astronomy radio sources in space. As part of their black body radiation, all warm objects transmit high frequencies of radio waves.

Radio waves are produced artificially by time-varying electric currents, consisting of electrons flowing back and forth in a specially-shaped metal conductor called the antenna. An electronic device called a radio transmitter applies an electric current to the antenna, and the antenna emits power as radio waves.

There is an antenna attached to a radio receiver that receives radio waves. When radio waves hit the receiving antenna, they push the electrons in the metal back and forth, creating tiny oscillating currents which are detected by the receiver.

Polarization of Radio Waves

Like other waves, a radio wave has a property called polarization, which is defined as the direction of the wave’s electric field in relation to the direction of motion. A plane has an electric field that changes with the direction of the plane.

The electric field is reflected in a horizontal direction in a horizontally polarized radio wave. The wave has an electric field in one direction and the other in the other. The electric field at any point in the wave rotates about the direction of travel, once per cycle.

A right circularly polarized wave rotates in a right-hand sense about the direction of travel, while a left circularly polarized wave rotates in the opposite sense. The wave’s magnetic field is related to the electric field, and the electric and magnetic field is oriented in a right-hand sense with respect to the direction of radiation.

The direction of the metal antenna elements determines the direction in which the radio waves are generated. A dipole antenna consists of two col linear metal rods. The rods can be horizontal or vertical, and the radio waves can be horizontally or vertically polarized.

If the antenna that is receiving the radio waves is not the same as the one that is sending it, it will suffer a severe loss of reception. Many natural sources of radio waves, such as the sun, stars, and blackbody radiation from warm objects emit unpolarized waves, consisting of incoherent short wave trains in an equal mixture of polarization states.

Radio communication

A radio antenna picks up many radio signals and a radio tuner is required to tune in to a particular signal. This can be accomplished with the help of a resonator, an inductor, a circuit with a Capacitor, or a crystal oscillator. It is possible to amplify sine waves at radio frequencies and avoid other sine waves with the correct configuration of the resonator.

The biological effect of radio waves

Non-ionizing radiation, also known as radio waves, means that they don’t have enough energy to separate electrons from atoms or break chemical bonds, which can cause chemical reactions or DNA damage.

The main effect of the absorption of radio waves by materials is to heat them, similar to the effect of the heat from sources of heat such as a space heater or wood fire.

This is how a microwave oven cooks food because the electric field of the wave causes the polar molecule to vibrate back and forth, increasing the temperature.

Radio waves are able to penetrate the surface and deposit their energy inside the materials and tissues of body unlike IR waves, which are mainly absorbed in the surface of objects and cause surface heating.

What is Amplitude Modulation?-Definition, Types, Methods, And Applications

August 25, 2022 by Adeel Abbas Leave a Comment

Amplitude modulation is the process of changing the amplitude of a wave signal. It is sometimes referred to as AM and is used to transmit information through a radio carrier wave.

What is amplitude modulation?

Amplitude modulation or just AM is one of the earliest methods used to transmit information over the radio. The technique was developed in the 20th century, at a time when Landell de Moura and Reginald Fessenden were conducting experiments using a radiotelephone.

The technique for establishing and using electronic communication was established after successful attempts. A type of modulation where the carrier wave’s amplitude is varied in some proportion with respect to the data or signal is known as amplitude modulation.

There is a variation in the carrier’s amplitude when the machine is used with amplitude modulation. The power level of the information signal can have an effect on the carrier’s amplitude. The carrier does not change during the day.

The data is composed of signal components that are either higher or lower than the carrier’s frequencies. The signal components are referred to as sidebands and the sideband power is responsible for the variations in the overall signal.

The AM technique is different from Frequency Modulation and Phase Modulation in that the frequencies of the carrier signal are different in the first and second case, respectively.

Types of Amplitude Modulation

There are three main types of amplitude modulation.

Double sideband-suppressed carrier modulation (DSB-SC).
Single Sideband Modulation (SSB).
Vestigial Sideband Modulation (VSB).

Modulation methods

Modulation circuit designs can either be classified as low- or high-level depending on whether they modify in a low-power domain or in the high-power domain of the transmitted signal.

Low-level generation

Digital signal processing (DSP) is used in modern radio systems to generate signals. Many types of AM are possible with software control, including DSB with the carrier, suppressed SSB carrier, and independent sideband.

A digital-to-analog converter is used to convert the digital samples to the desired RF output frequencies. The low-level method for AM uses linear amplification to amplify the signal to the desired frequencies and power levels.

High-level generation

High-power AM transmitters (such as those used for AM broadcasting) are based on high-efficiency class-D and class-E power amplifier stages and modulated by varying the supply voltage. Similar options are available with transistors, but the following types are used for vacuum tube transmitters.

Applications of Amplitude Modulation

Over the years, the use of amplitude modulation has decreased, but it is still being used in certain transmission areas. Below is where we will look at them.

Broadcast Transmissions:
Broadcasting over the short, medium and long wavebands is done with AM. Since AM is very easy to demodulate, it’s cheaper to make radio receivers for amplitude modulation.
Air-band radio:
AM is used in transmissions for many airborne applications such as ground-to-air radio communications or two-way radio links for ground staff personnel.
Single sideband:
AM uses a lower bandwidth and provides more effective use of the transmitted power in this form.
Quadrature amplitude modulation: AM is used in a variety of ways, including short-range wireless links, to transmit data.

What is Radiant Energy?-Definition, Analysis, And Application

August 24, 2022 by Adeel Abbas Leave a Comment

Radiative energy is the physical energy that comes from an electromagnetic source into the surrounding environment. gamma rays, x-rays, radio frequencies, microwaves, light, and heat are some of the radian energy sources.

What is radiant energy?

The term “radiant energy” is most often used in the fields of radiometry, solar energy, heating, and lighting, but is also sometimes used in other fields. “radiant energy” is sometimes used to refer to the waves themselves, rather than their energy, in modern applications involving transmission of power from one location to another.

In the past, the term “radiant energy” has also been used. For example, the first gravitational waves ever observed were produced by a black hole collision that emitted about 5.3×10^47.

Analysis of radiant energy

The energy carried by the photons can be viewed as photon energy, which is the energy that comes from the stream of electrons. EM radiation can be seen as an electric wave, which carries energy in its magnetic and electric fields. Both views are reconciled to one another in quantum field theory, and they can have different frequencies.

The bands of frequencies present in a given signal may be defined in ways that are similar to the atomic spectrum or blackbody radiation. The energy carried by each photon is proportional to the Frequency in the particle picture.

The wave picture shows that the energy of the wave is proportional to its intensity. This means that if two waves have the same intensity, but different frequencies, the one with the higher frequencies contains fewer photons since each photon is more energetic.

In the case of a photoelectric material, the energy of the waves is converted to heat or electricity when they are absorbed by an object. This effect is familiar due to the fact that sunlight warms the surface that it irradiates.

This phenomenon is usually associated with infrared radiation, but any kind of radiation will warm an object that absorbs it. If the waves are reflected or scattered, their energy can be redistributed as well.

Applications of radiant energy

It can either be generated by a lamp or absorbed from the sun and used to heat the water. The heat energy is emitted from a warm element (floor, wall, overhead panel), and warms people and other objects in rooms rather than directly heating the air. Even though the room appears just as comfortable, the air temperature may be lower than in a conventionally heated building because of this.

Treatment and inspection, separation and sorting, medium of control, and medium of communication are just a few of the other applications of radiant energy. A source of energy and a detector that responds to radiation are some of the applications that involve a source of energy and a detector.

The responses to incident radiant energy can be either an increase or decrease in electric potential or current flow, or some other perceivable change, such as exposure to the photographic film.

What are Computer Buses?-Types of Computer Buses

August 24, 2022 by Sehrish Basharat Leave a Comment

Computer buses are the connection between two or more devices. The bus is a common path to transfer data and commands between the CPU, memory input devices, and output devices

A computer system consists of different devices. The CPU must be able to communicate with all devices. The devices are connected together by a communications channel called a bus. A bus consists of set communication lines or wires and moves many bits in the form of electrical pulses from one unit to another.

The bus is used to connect the following units:

Central Processing Unit (CPU)

Control Unit

Arithmetic and Logical Unit.

Main Memory (RAM, ROM)

Input/ Output Devices

The bus is a common path for transferring data and commands between CPU, memory, input devices, and output devices. It is also used to send and receive data from secondary storage. The capacity of a bus depends on the number of data lines in it.

The amount of data that a bus can carry at one time is called bus width. A bus with 16 lines can carry 16 bits or 2 bytes at a time, and a bus with 32 lines can carry 32 bits or 4 bytes at a time. System buses are part of the motherboard.

The speed at which data moves from one location to another is called bus clock speed. Bus clock speed affects the computer’s overall performance. It is measured in megahertz (MHz) or millions of clock cycles per second.

Data bus

The data bus is the most common bus. It is used to carry data. An electrical path connects the CPU, memory, input/output devices, and secondary storage devices. The bus contains a parallel set of lines.

The number of lines affects the speed of data transfer between different components. A data bus with more lines can carry more data. A data bus with 16 lines can carry 16 bits (2 bytes) of data. A bus with 32 lines can carry 32 bits (4 bytes) of data.

A bus is designed to communicate efficiently with the components. The buses in old computers could carry only one byte of data, while the buses used today can carry multiple bytes at once, improving the speed and performance of the computer system.

Address Bus

The address bus is used to carry address information. It is a set of wires similar to the data bus. It only connects the central processing unit and memory. The following steps take place when the CPU needs data from the memory:

CPU places the address of required data on the address bus.
The address is carried to the memory.
The data from the requested address is fetched and placed on the data bus.
The data bus carries the data to the CPU.

The number of lines in the address bus determines the maximum number of memory addresses. If an address bus has 8 lines, the maximum number of memory locations that can be addressed is 28 = 256. The computers used today have 32-bit address lines and can access 4GB of memory.

Control Bus

The control bus transmits different commands from one component to another. For example, if the CPU wants to read data from the main memory, it uses a control bus to send the memory read command to the computer’s main memory.

The control bus also transmits control signals like ACKS (Acknowledgement signals). A control signal contains the following:

Timing Information: It specifies when a device can use data and address the bus.

Command Signal: It specifies the type of operation to be performed.

Suppose the CPU commands the main memory to write data. After writing the data successfully, the memory sends an acknowledgement signal to the CPU. The CPU receives this signal and then moves to perform some other action.

Population Inversion in laser | Laser Action

August 24, 2022 by Adeel Abbas Leave a Comment

The population inversion in laser principle simply involves the de-excitation of an atom to a lower energy state, under the influence of the electromagnetic field of a photon of frequency f.

During this de-excitation, the excited electron emits a photon in addition to the incident photon having the same frequency f. Thus now two photons move instead of one. In short, the excited atom emits light waves in steps with the incoming wave and increases its intensity. The radiated light waves are exactly in phase with the incident ones. So the result is an enhanced beam of light.

Population Inversion in laser

The key to the laser is the presence of one or more excited energy levels in many atoms whose lifetime maybe 10-3 sec or more instead of the usual 10-8 sec. Such relatively long-lived states are called metastable states.

A medium may be solid, liquid gas, or is introduced in a chamber. The chamber consists of two parallel mirrors facing each other called optical cavities. One of the mirrors is only partially silvered to allow the beam to escape.

Under normal conditions, there are mostly few excited states in an atom, so special methods are used to increase the number of excited states. This process is called population inversion. A number of ways exist to produce a population inversion.

One of them is called Optical pumping. Here an external light source is used; some of whose photons have the right frequency to raise the atoms to excited states that decay spontaneously to the desired metastable state.

E2 is the metastable state and transition from or to this state is difficult as compared to other excited states. Hence instead of direct excitation to this state, the electrons are excited to a higher level for spontaneous fall to a metastable state.

In order to excite the atom to the higher excited state E3, let a photon of energy hf = E3-E1 be incident on the atom so that the electron moves from the first to the third energy state. Now the electron may decay directly to the ground state but mostly it first decays from E1 to E2 (which is a metastable state).

This eventually leads to the situation that the state E2 contains more atoms than state E1 This situation is called population inversion.

Laser Action

Once the population inversion has been reached, the lasing action of the laser is simple to achieve. The atoms in the metastable state E, are bombarded by photons of energy hf = E₂-E1 resulting in the stimulated (induced) emission. The photons so produced are monochromatic (same frequency) and coherent (in phase).

They are reflected back and forth between the mirrors to stimulate more and more excited atoms to emit photons. As the process continues, the number of photons multiplies to produce an intense monochromatic beam of radiation.

Population Inversion in helium Neon laser

In this laser population inversion in neon is achieved by direct collisions with the same energy electrons of helium atoms. Thus excited helium atoms collide with neon atoms, each transferring its own 20.61 eV of energy to an electron along with 0.05 eV of K.E. from the moving atoms. As a result, the electrons in neon atoms are raised to the 20.66 eV state. In this way, a population inversion is sustained in the neon gas relative to an energy level of 18.70 eV.

Stimulated Emission in helium Neon laser

Spontaneous emission from neon atoms causes the laser action and stimulated emission causes electrons in the neon to drop from 20.66 eV to the level and red laser light of wavelength 632.8 nm corresponds to 1.96 eV ener

Uses Of Laser in Medicine

Laser beams are used as surgical tools for welding detached retinas. This narrow intense beam of a laser can be used to destroy tissue in a localized area.
Using laser tiny organelles in the living cells are destroyed to check the behavior of cells in the absence of organelle.
The narrow intense beam of a laser can be used to destroy cancerous and pre-cancerous cells.
The heat of the laser seals off capillaries and lymph vessels to prevent the spread of the disease.
A laser beam can also be used to drill tiny holes in the hardest material like steel or diamond.
The precise straightness of the laser beam is used to check the lining up of equipment, especially in inaccessible locations.
A high-power laser is used to induce a nuclear fusion reaction. The laser can be used as a range finder over large distances.
It can be used for telecommunication along optical fibers.
The laser beam can be used to generate three-dimensional images of objects in a process called holography.
A laser is used to break stones in the gall bladder and kidney. The device is known as Lithotripmeter.

Glands of Mammalian Skin | Coloration of Mammalian Skin

August 22, 2022 by Adeel Abbas Leave a Comment

Skin is the outermost layer of the body. It protects us from injury and disease, provides sensation, and helps regulate temperature. The skin also contains glands that secrete oils and other substances into the surrounding environment.

The skin has three layers: epidermis, dermis, and hypodermis. The epidermis is the outermost layer and consists of four types of cells: keratinocytes, melanocytes, Langerhans cells, and Merkel cells. Melanocytes produce melanin, which gives color to hair, eyes, and skin. Langerhans cells act as antigen-presenting cells (APCs) and play a role in the immune response. Merkel cells are sensory neurons that detect touch and pressure.

Glands of Mammalian Skin

The skin of mammals contains different types of glands.

1. Sudoriferous Glands Or Sweat Glands:

They are distributed over most parts of the human body surface. These glands secrete sweat during the process of perspiration. Perspiration regulates the body temperature. The evaporation causes a cooling effect. It maintains homeostasis in the body.

Certain sweat glands also produce pheromones in some mammals. A pheromone is a chemical that an animal secretes and that communicates with other members of the same species to get certain behavioral responses.

2. Sebaceous Gland Or Oil Gland:

They are simple glands. They are connected to hair follicles in the dermis. They secret sebum. Sebum performs the following functions:

Sebum lubricates and protects the hairs.
Sebum is a permeability barrier. It acts as an emollient (makes skin soft).
It acts protective agent against microorganisms.
Sebum can also act as a pheromone.

Coloration Of Mammalian Skin

The following factors cause coloration in mammalian skin:

1. Pigments: The pigments produce the skin colors of mammals. Pigments like melanin are present within the cells of the epidermal layer. They are also present in hair. They are also present in specialized cells called chromatophores.

2. Anatomical structures: Skin also has anatomical structures. These structures absorb or reflect light and product colors.

3. Blood vessel: Blood in some blood vessels also produces color. Blood is present in some superficial blood vessels in the skin. The color of blood is reflected through the epidermis.

Advantages Of Skin Coloration

There are the following advantages of skin coloration:

1. Bright skin colors are produced in venomous (poisonous) animals. It deters (discourages) potential predators.

2. Some skin colors hide the animal (Grasshopper)

3. Colors play role in social communication.

4. They help members of the same species to identify each other.

5. Skin color play role in their sex, reproductive status, or social ranks.

What is Wavefront?-Definition, Types, And Examples

August 22, 2022 by Adeel Abbas Leave a Comment

In physics, the wavefront of a time-varying wave field is the set of all points having the same phase.

What is Wavefront?

The imaginary surface that represents the points of a wave that vibrates in unison is called a wavefront. The corresponding crests and troughs at any instant are in a phase when identical waves have a common origin and travel through a heterogeneous medium.

Types of Wavefront

The different types of wavefronts can be determined by the path followed by the particles from the source. We can understand these different types in more detail.

Spherical wavefront

When the point source is an isotropic medium, the wavefronts are spheres that are centered on the source. Electromagnetic waves in a vacuum form a spherical wavefront.

Cylindrical Wavefront

When the source of light is linear, the points on the surface of the cylinder are from the source. A wavefront with a cylindrical shape is called a wavefront. The rays of light coming out of a lens converge at a point. It takes the form of a cylinder as they bend.

Plane Wavefront

Plane wavefront can be produced by extended sources like when we see a point object which produces a spherical wavefront, but far away when rays become parallel. The wavefronts are less curved when the distance from the source of light increases. Radiations coming out of the sun are an example of the plane wavefront.

Wavefront Sensor

A wavefront sensor is a device that measures the wavefront aberration in a coherent signal to describe the optical quality or lack of it in an optical system. The method of using a Shack–Hartmann lenslet array is very popular. The measurement of the aberrations in the eye is one of the many applications that adaptive optics can be used. In this approach, a weak laser source is directed into the eye and the reflection of the retina is captured and processed.

Application of Wavefront

There is a great deal of significance to wavefront devices in optical information processing systems. These devices can be used in a variety of optical applications.

wavefront correction
optical metrology
adaptive optics
aberration compensation

What is MS Word? – Features, MS Word Window Interface

August 21, 2022 by Sehrish Basharat Leave a Comment

MS Word is a word processing software developed by Microsoft. It allows you to create documents such as letters, reports, brochures, etc. The main function of Word Processing Software is to allow you to write text and insert pictures, tables, charts, etc. into a document.

Microsoft Office was originally developed by Bill Gates and Paul Allen back in 1985. Since then, it has evolved into a suite of applications that include Word, PowerPoint, Excel, Outlook, OneNote, Publisher, Access, and Skype. Microsoft Word is developed by Charles Simonyi and Richard Brodie.

Features of MS Word

The following are the basic features of MS Word:

1. Basic Formatting Tools

Text Editing: MS Word offers a variety of text styles and options. You can change font type, size, and color. You can also add bold, italics, or underline to highlight important text.

Paragraph Formatting: You can adjust alignment (left, center, right), line spacing, and indentation to make the document look organized and easy to read.

2. Inserting Elements

Images and Shapes: Insert images or shapes by going to the “Insert” tab. You can use this to add pictures, charts, or simple shapes to make your document visually appealing.

Tables: You can create tables to organize data. This is useful for projects that involve statistics, lists, or comparisons.

Headers and Footers: Headers and footers are areas at the top and bottom of each page. You can add page numbers, document titles, or author names here for a professional look.

3. Proofing Tools

Thesaurus and Word Suggestions: The thesaurus suggests synonyms to improve your vocabulary. It’s a helpful tool for finding better words and making your writing clearer.

Spelling and Grammar Check: MS Word automatically checks your spelling and grammar as you type. This feature helps you write accurately and catch mistakes easily.

MS Word Window Interface

MS Word window has many items.

Title Bar

The title bar contains the title of the current document. It is located at the top of the document.

Menu Bar

The menu bar contains different tabs like (Home, Insert, Design, Page Layout, Reference, Mailing, View, and Review…). The Home tab contains different items like alignment, font (style, size, color, etc), and many more. Each tab has its different functions.

Fonts

The appearance of text in the document is called font or typeface. Fonts are used to make text of different styles and sizes.

Font size: Font size can be set from the formatting toolbar. Font size is measured in points. A common font size used in business documents is 82-point types.
Font style: Font style is used to make the test bold, italicize, and underline the text formatting toolbar contains a separate button for all of these options.
Font color: Font color option is used to change the color of the test.

Different Alignments in MS Word

There are different types of alignments in MS Word.

Left alignment: we can align the data to the left side by clicking on the left alignment button or by shortcut key ctrl + l.
Left alignment: we can align the data to the right side by clicking on the right alignment button or by shortcut key ctrl + r.
Center alignment: we can align the data in the middle of the cell by clicking on the left alignment button or by shortcut key ctrl + E.
Justify alignment: Justify alignment is used to align the data on both margins. We can justify the data by clicking on the justify alignment button or by shortcut key ctrl + J.

Status Bar

The status bar contains the word count option, zoom in, and zoom out options. It also contains the page layouts. We can customize the status bar.

Quick Access Toolbar

The toolbar contains the shortcut for saving, undo and redo. We can quickly use them on the toolbar. We can also add more items.

Undo: The undo command is used to remove the last change made in the document. We can also apply to undo option by shortcut key ctrl + Z.
Redo: the redo command is used to remove the last effect of undo. We can also apply the redo option by short cut key ctrl + Y
Save: this option is used to save the document for future use. The shortcut key of Save is (Ctrl + S)

Scroll Bars

MS Word has two scroll bars vertical and horizontal. The vertical scroll bar is used to move the document up and down. The horizontal scroll bar is used to move the page left and right.

Rulers

The horizontal ruler can be used to set tab stops and indents or to adjust the width of columns. The horizontal or vertical ruler can also be used to change the page margin or place items on the page.

Importance of MS Word for Students

MS Word helps students with assignments, projects, and organizing study materials. Using MS Word teaches important skills, such as formatting text, organizing information, and using digital tools for communication.

These skills are valuable for school and will be helpful in future work and personal projects. Learning MS Word early prepares students for a world where digital communication is important.

Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs)

What should I do if I accidentally close MS Word without saving it?

MS Word has an AutoRecover feature that can help retrieve unsaved documents. It may show the recovered file when you reopen Word.

What are the 5 functions of Microsoft Word?

Creating documents.
Adding Images to Documents.
Add placeholder text.
Convert a list to a table.
Quick selection methods.

Who invented Microsoft Word?

Charles Simonyi and Richard Brodie invented Microsoft Word.

What are the 7 elements of MS Office?

·        Title bar
·        Status bar
·        Menu bar
·        Scroll bar (horizontal and vertical)
·        Quick access toolbar
·        Control buttons
·        Workplace

What is an Artificial Satellite?-Definition, Components, And Applications

August 21, 2022 by Adeel Abbas Leave a Comment

Artificial Satellite is a man-made object orbiting Earth above the surface of the planet.

What is an Artificial Satellite?

Artificial satellites are the ones that were launched into the Earth’s orbit by humans. They are a type of space junk that was created by humans. These satellites are launched into the Earth’s orbit for various reasons like communication, observation of Earth, research, etc.

History

Artificial satellites were first developed in the 1950s and 1960s, and have since become commonplace. There are currently over 6,500 operational satellites in orbit around the Earth. The first artificial satellite was Sputnik 1, launched on October 4th 1957. Since then, many different types of satellites have been created.

Components of an Artificial Satellite

There are three main parts of an artificial satellite

Orbital Control
Power
Communication

Orbital Control

The three axes of rotation or attitude are controlled by the reaction wheels, which are coupled with chemical or ion propulsion. Satellites close to Earth are affected the most by variations in the Earth’s magnetic field and the Sun’s radiation pressure, while satellites that are further away are affected more by other bodies’ gravitational fields by the Moon and the Sun. Satellites will not be able to communicate with ground stations on Earth if they don’t have orientation control.

Power

Most satellites use solar panels to generate power, but a few in deep space with limited sunlight use radioisotope thermoelectric generators. The sun is blocked inside the launch vehicle and at night, so batteries are required for satellites with a solar panel. In the past nickel–hydrogen has been the most common type of battery for satellites.

Communication

A communications satellite’s transponder is a series of interdependent units that form a communications channel between the receiving and the transmitting antennas.

Types of Artificial Satellite

There are many satellites orbiting around the earth.

Geostationary Satellites:

These are the most common satellites as they are used for communications. They are used to communicate between different places on Earth. Some examples include mobile phones, television, radio, etc. They are also used for monitoring the weather and for gathering information about earthquakes, hurricanes, tsunamis, and other natural disasters. Geostationary satellites are used for communication purposes.

Polar Satellites:

These are the most interesting type of artificial satellites. They are the type of satellites that go around the poles of the Earth. They use the north pole of the Earth for observations and the south pole for scientific experiments. These are mainly used for scientific research. They are also used to monitor the ice caps and the melting of the snow in the winter season.

Applications of Satellite

Satellites are used for different purposes.

Earth observation

Earth observation satellites are used to monitor and survey the planet. Most Earth observation satellites are placed in low Earth orbit for a high data resolution, but some are placed in geostationary for continuous coverage. In order to get a complete view of the Earth, some satellites are placed in a Sun-synchronous orbit, which has consistent lighting. A normal camera, radar, lidar, photometer, and atmospheric instruments can be found on the satellites.

Navigation

A navigation satellite uses radio time signals to let a mobile receiver on the ground determine its exact location. Satellite navigation systems can measure location to accuracies on the order of a few meters in real-time, thanks to the relatively clear line of sight between the satellites and receiver on the ground.

Experiments

A tether satellite is a satellite that is connected to another satellite through a thin cable. Satellites that provide a recovery of space production and other things are known as recovery satellites. Space-based solar power satellites are proposed satellites that would collect energy from sunlight and transmit it for use on Earth or other places

Local Area Network(LAN)-Advantages and Disadvantages of LAN

August 20, 2022 by Sehrish Basharat Leave a Comment

LAN is a small computer network. The full form of LAN for Local Area Network. This type of computer network connects computers within a single building or office. In contrast, WAN (Wide Area Network) refers to networks that connect multiple buildings or locations across large distances through the internet.

LANs are able to transmit data rapidly, with a typical speed of 10 Mbps to 1000 Mbps. This is significantly faster than data transmission over a telephone line. Additionally, LAN transmissions are limited to a specific distance, and there is a limit to the number of computers that can be attached to the network.

Examples

There are 40 computers in a computer lab that are connected through a LAN. This allows students to share software, files, and data with one another.

In an Internet club, many computers can be connected to each other through a LAN. This allows them to share a single connection to the Internet, which can be faster and more reliable than using separate connections for each individual computer.

Advantages of LAN

Some important advantages of LAN are as follows:

Resource Sharing

Through LAN different resources like printers, scanners, CD-ROM drives, hard drives, and software can be shared. This is cheaper than buying devices for each workstation in the network.

High Speed

LAN networks have high speeds compared to other types of networks. A typical Ethernet cable can transfer data at 100 Mbps (megabits per second). However, wireless networks can transfer data at 1 Gbps (gigabits per second) or higher.

Wireless networks are much faster than wired networks because they don’t require physical cables between devices.

Communication

In a LAN, users can easily communicate with one another. Additionally, they can quickly and easily transport data between other computers connected to the network.

Application sharing

The individual licensed copy of the software can be costly. A lot of money can be saved by using the same software over the network instead of purchasing a separate copy of the software for each workstation.

The network versions of software applications such as MS Office (MS Excel, MS Word, Presentation, etc.) are available. These applications are loaded on the server and shared by different users on the LAN.

Centralized IT Admin

LAN allows an easier and more efficient way to manage different computers from servers. IT administrators can remotely troubleshoot the problems on computers across the network instead of doing it individually.

Centralized Data

The users can save their data centrally on the server on LAN. They can access the saved data from any workstation on the network. They do not need to use the same workstation all the time.

Internet Access Sharing

In the Internet club, many computers can be connected through LAN. These computers can share a single connection to the Internet. For example, if every computer in the Internet club has an internet connection, but one can be shared. Therefore, we can say that sharing an Internet connection is one of the features of the LAN.

Data Security & Management

Important data can be managed more effectively through LAN. Instead of keeping data on several devices, information can be centrally located on shared servers. Data is widely accessible to everyone, and security measures are simple to install.

Disadvantages of LAN

Some important disadvantages of LAN are as follows

Privacy threat

The privacy of users may be at risk from LAN. The user’s private files are accessible to the network administrator. He can also keep an eye on the user’s network and Internet usage.

Expensive to Install

LAN generally saves money over time. However, it may need high initial costs of installation. The cables, network cards, and software are very costly. The installation may also require the services of a technician.

Admin Time Required

It takes time and knowledge to maintain LANs properly. For the network to be properly managed, a network administrator may be needed.

Data Security Concerns

If LAN is not properly secured, it could expose sensitive data to risk. Unauthorized users have the potential to access crucial data and corrupt it.

Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs)

What are the features of LAN?

LAN covers small areas such as buildings, offices, etc. LAN has a high data transfer rate. One type of data transmission is used in LAN.

What are the types of LAN in computers?

LAN commonly has two types:
Wired LAN
Wireless LAN

Why LAN is used?

Local area networks (LANs) are most commonly used for resource sharing. This means that expensive hardware like laser printers and CD/ROM drives can be accessed and used by multiple users when they are connected to the network.

What are the elements of LAN?

·         Networking Interface Card (NICs): …
·         HUB
·         Switch
·         Access point
·         Power Supply
·         Router
·         Server
·         Station

Which topology is used in LAN?

Bus topology
Ring topology
Star topology

Introduction To Animal Cells-Types and Composition

August 20, 2022 by Sidra Batool Leave a Comment

Animal cells are typical of the eukaryotic cell, enclosed by a plasma membrane and containing a membrane-bound nucleus and organelles. Unlike the eukaryotic cells of plants and fungi, animal cells do not have a cell wall.

Types Of Cells

There are two types of animal cells,

Prokaryotic Cell
Eukaryotic Cell

Prokaryotes are the simplest form of cells, but they are also the most dominant. They don’t have a nucleus or any kind of membrane-bound organelles.

Structure Of Animal Cell

An animal cell is larger in size than plant cell.

image showing structure of an animal cell

It consists of the following organelles;

Cytoplasm

The cytoplasm is a semi-liquid matter, present inside the cell membrane. It consists of cytosol and cell organelles. It provides a site for any cellular reactions.

Centrioles

Centrioles are self-replicating organelles made up of nine bundles of microtubules and are found only in animal cells.

In addition to their role in mitosis, centrioles are required for the formation of cilia and flagella and for establishing spindle pole bodies during asymmetric cell divisions. Centriole assembly is tightly regulated through centriolar precursor amplification, a process that involves the generation of new centrioles from existing centrioles.

Cilia and Flagella

For single-celled eukaryotes, cilia and flagella are essential for the locomotion of individual organisms.

Cilia and flagella also serve as sensory organs that detect external stimuli. The ciliated epithelium of the respiratory tract is a major organ responsible for the clearance of inhaled pathogens and the maintenance of pulmonary homeostasis.

Endoplasmic Reticulum

The endoplasmic reticulum is a network of sacs that manufactures, processes, and transports chemical compounds for use inside and outside of the cell.

The ER is responsible for synthesizing, processing, and transporting proteins as well as lipid molecules. In addition, the ER is a site where calcium and other ions are stored. The ER also is involved in calcium regulation, the production of steroid hormones, and vitamin storage.

The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is a complex network of sacs that synthesizes, processes, and transports chemical compounds for use inside and outside of the cell. The ER is responsible for synthesizing, processing, and transporting proteins as well as lipid molecules.

Endosomes

Endosomes are membrane-bound vesicles, formed via a complex family of processes collectively known as endocytosis, and found in the cytoplasm of virtually every animal cell.

Endosomes are involved in the transport of molecules between cells and are essential to the regulation of cellular metabolism, growth, differentiation, and death. Endosomes also function as signaling platforms and contain multiple receptors that mediate cell-cell communication.

In response to extracellular stimuli, endosomes undergo dramatic morphological changes, including tubulation, fission, and budding, to form specialized domains such as the early or late endosome.

Golgi Apparatus

The Golgi apparatus is the distribution and shipping department for the cell’s chemical products.

It is also the site of the synthesis and processing of glycoproteins. Glycoproteins are important macromolecules in living cells because they participate in almost every aspect of cellular function.

The Golgi apparatus is the major site of glycosylation, and the glycans it synthesizes are attached to specific proteins or lipids. The glycosylation process is highly complex. It requires many enzymes that have different activities and subcellular locations.

Lysosomes

These microscopic bodies are involved in the digestion process. They break down cellular waste products and other debris and turn them into substances that can be used to make new cells.

Mitochondria

The Mitochondria are in the cell’s cytoplasm. They are the main power generators in animal cell.

Nucleus

The nucleus is a highly specialized organelle that serves as the information processing and administrative center of the cell.

The nuclear envelope (NE) that surrounds the nucleus provides the physical barrier that segregates the nucleus from other cellular compartments. The NE contains two main layers, the inner membrane complex (IMC) and the outer membrane complex (OMC).

Both of these components are associated with multiple proteins. In the IMC, the nuclear lamina is a dynamic meshwork of intermediate filaments that forms a continuous sheet between the inner and outer nuclear membranes. It consists of three main proteins:

Peroxisomes

Peroxisomes are organelles that are present in the cytoplasm. Their shape is roughly spherical.

Plasma Membrane

All living cells have a plasma membrane that encloses the cytoplasm and other organelles. In prokaryotic cells, the membrane is surrounded by a rigid cell wall.

Eukaryotic cells evolved from unicellular organisms that lost their walls. They have a single membrane, which surrounds the cytoplasm and separates it from the extracellular environment. The membrane surrounding eukaryotic cells is the plasma membrane, which is also referred to as the cellular envelope, cytoplasmic membrane, or outer cell membrane.

Ribosomes

All living cells contain ribosomes, tiny organelles composed of approximately 60 percent RNA and 40 percent protein.

Ribosomes translate the information stored in DNA into protein, an essential process that takes place throughout a cell’s life. The translation of mRNA is accomplished by large molecular machines called ribosomes.

These ribosomes are assembled from about 80 small RNAs (rRNA) and some proteins (rProteins). Ribosomes are essential for all forms of life. They are involved in all the processes that make living cells alive, including respiration, photosynthesis, and the synthesis of proteins, fats, and carbohydrates.

Difference Between Animal And Plant Cell

Plant cells are eukaryotic cells, meaning they contain a nucleus surrounded by organelles. Animal cells are prokaryotic cells, meaning their nuclei lack surrounding membranes.

Animal cells are typically larger than plant cells because they contain more organelles. Plant cells also tend to be smaller than animal cells because they don’t contain as much cytoplasm

or cell wall. Plant cells are capable of photosynthesis, which is the process that allows plant cells to use sunlight to make food for themselves. Animal cells cannot do this and instead must eat other organisms to get the food they need to survive.

Plant cells have a cell wall that protects them from being eaten. The cell wall is made of cellulose fibers that are bonded together by lignin and other molecules. Animal cells do not have a cell wall. Plant cells have a cell membrane that surrounds the cell wall.

Refraction of Light-Definition, Laws, And Refractive Index

August 20, 2022 by Adeel Abbas Leave a Comment

Refraction of light occurs when light passes through a transparent material at an angle different than its original path. Refraction causes light to bend, making objects appear farther away than they actually are.

What is the refraction of light?

Referring to a wave as it passes from one medium to another is a fundamental principle of physics. Refraction of light is the most commonly observed phenomenon, but other waves such as sound waves and water waves can also experience this phenomenon. The initial direction of wave propagation relative to the direction of change in speed is what determines how much a wave is refracted.

Reflection occurs when a ray of light hits a surface and bounces off at an angle different than its original path. Refraction occurs when a ray of white light bends (or changes direction) due to passing through a substance with a different density than its surrounding environment. When light passes through water, it bends slightly and travels faster than if it had not gone through any liquid at all. Light travels slower in denser substances like glass, concrete, and dirt than it does in air. The amount of bending is directly proportional to how dense the material is.

Laws of Refraction of Light

Laws of refraction state that:

The normal to interface of two media at the point of incidence is on the same plane as the incident ray.
There is no change in the ratio of the angle of incidence to the angle of refraction. This is also referred to as the law of refraction. ${\frac {\sin \theta _{1}}{\sin \theta _{2}}}={\frac {v_{1}}{v_{2}}}$ v1 and v2 are the wave speed.

Refractive index

The wave phase speed v in the material is more important for light than the Refractive index n of a material. They are related to the speed of light in a vacuum c.

The law of refraction is usually written in the field of optics.

Causes of Refraction

A light ray travels into a medium of different Refractive index when it moves at an angle. A change in direction is the result of this change in speed. Consider air traveling into the water as an example. As the light travels at a different angle, the speed of light goes down.

When light hits an interface between different materials, whether air/glass or water/air, some of the light rays bend into the second material. If the first material is denser than the second, then more of the light bends (refracts) into the second material. Conversely, if the first material is less dense than the second, then fewer of the light rays bend and thus less refraction occurs.

Applications of Refraction of Light

There are a lot of applications of refraction in technology. A lens can be used to form an image of an object for a variety of purposes, such as magnification. The principle of refraction is used in glasses worn by people who have poor vision. In peepholes of house doors, cameras, movie projectors, and telescopes, fractional are used. It is the basic principle of fiber optics communication.

Types of output devices

August 18, 2022 by Sehrish Basharat Leave a Comment

What is an Output Device?

Output devices refer to hardware components that transmit processed data from a computer to another device or a user.

The processed data given to the user is known as the output. The computer gives us output as a result of any input given to it.

Devices that send data to a computer are inputs, while those that receive and present data are outputs. Think of it like a conversation: inputs “talk” to the computer, while outputs “speak” to you.

Why Do We Need Output Devices?

Output devices are essential because they allow computers to communicate with us in ways we understand—through visuals, sounds, and printed information. They make the digital world accessible and interactive. They increase our ability to receive information, make decisions, and use content.

Types of Output Devices

Output Devices devices can be categorized based on their functions:

1. Audio Output Devices

Audio Output Devices focus on transporting digital sound signals to audible experiences. Speakers operate on the principle of powering these mechanical vibrations from electrical signals so that we can hear the sound waves. Small speakers in headphones near the ears give out the sound directly to the ears, so there is a direct effect on the ear, or we could call it personalized sound. Audio amplifiers increase the overall sound quality of the audio signal by amplifying weak signals up to a decent loudness for the driving speaker.

2. Visual Output Devices

The Visual Output Devices are designed to display the digital content visually using various technologies. Monitors convert the digital information into visual representation by lighting up a pixel on a monitor based on what is fed to them. All projectors use light sources and lenses to project images onto a screen or other surface that can be viewed. Light-emitting diodes (LED) are used to create display luminous forms in LED displays used in digital signage and electronic displays. By printing, they take digital images and text and reproduce them physically in a specific pattern—ink or toner is applied to paper. Plotters use a pen or other tool to draw precisely on paper and produce detailed graphical output.

3. Sensation Output Devices

Sensation Output Devices are the sensation devices that work with the sense of touch and tactile experiences. Haptic feedback devices use motors or actuators to vibrate or force as if it was touched and provide a fuller understanding. Braille embossers use mechanical means to emboss Braille dots onto paper so the user can ‘read’ information through touch. Tactile feedback interfaces leverage different mechanisms to map physical sensations onto the touch interactions with surfaces, including touchscreens.

4. Physical Output Devices

In Physical Output Devices, we transform digital instructions into tangible objects through Physical Output Devices such as 3D printers, which function and use 3D designs to deposit material layer by layer to create 3D objects. CNC allows materials to be cut or shaped through computer-controlled instructions, providing ideal precision and repeatability.

5. Communication Output Devices

The Communication Output Devices transmit digital information. The fax machine takes a digital document and turns it into an analog signal to send through the phone line; when it reaches the other end, it produces a physical copy. LED status indicators use different colours and patterns to display the system state or system condition.

6. Specialized Output Devices

Different specialized Output Devices are meant for various applications and industries. The real-time information shown to air traffic control displays assists controllers in precise and efficient air travel. Barcode printers ensure safe and easy inventory tracking with barcodes on the labels they produce.

7. Interactive Output Devices

Interactive Output Devices encourage user and peer interaction. Interactive whiteboards combine a display with touch or pen input so that users can interact with and manipulate the scale of the displayed content. Virtual reality headsets detect head and body movements to transport users into an interactive virtual environment.

8. Remote Output Devices

Remote Output Devices are capable of displaying content in distant locations. Digital signage is controlled using digital technology in public spaces and delivers dynamic content. LED/LCD billboards are large-scale LED or LCD-based outdoor displays for communicating information to a large mass.

Input Devices of Computer

August 18, 2022 by Sehrish Basharat Leave a Comment

What is Input device?

Input devices are the tools that enable us to interact with our computers. They include keyboards, mice, touch pads, scanners, joysticks, trackballs, game controllers, and other similar devices. For example, you might enter text into a word processor, numbers into a calculator, or music into a sound card using input devices.

How do Input Devices Work?

Here are the basic steps for how input devices work:

The user provides some kind of input. For example, with a keyboard they press a key, with a mouse they move the mouse or click a button, with a microphone they speak into it.
The input device converts that physical input into an electrical signal that represents the input. For example:
Pressing a keyboard key completes a circuit that sends an electrical signal unique to that key.
Moving/clicking a mouse sends signals about the direction of movement or click button pressed.
A microphone converts sound waves into analogous electrical signals.
The input device sends the electrical signals through cables or wirelessly to the computer.
A device controller (hardware circuitry) on the computer converts the electrical signals into binary data that the computer can understand.
The binary input data is sent to driver software on the computer which identifies what type of input it is and what it means.
The input driver software converts the binary data into a standard input format and sends it to the operating system.
The operating system interprets the input data and sends it to the appropriate application that is meant to receive and handle that type of input.
The application then responds to the input accordingly by performing appropriate actions, changing something on the display screen, etc.

Types of Input Devices

Here are the main types of input devices based on the type of input:

Based on Text Input

Keyboard

The keyboard is the most commonly used external hardware device for computers. A keyboard is a vital part of every computer or laptop. They allow us to type text into our computers, and they also serve as a way to navigate through menus and other programs. The standard keyboard has 106 keys.

Keyers

Keyers provide text input through Morse code, a system of dots and dashes representing letters and symbols. By accepting sequences of short and long button presses, keyers translate these signals into standard text characters, enabling communication in applications like amateur radio.

2: Pointing Devices

Mouse

The mouse is a pointing device that enables users to move around on-screen windows and click on icons. Mice are commonly used with computers running Microsoft Windows operating systems.

Joystick

Joysticks are designed to be operated by hand. They have two axes (or directions) of movement and move in opposite directions.

A joystick is attached to a device called a controller, which translates the movements of the joystick into signals that control the actions of the device being controlled.

Touchpad

The touchpad is a small rectangular pad located at the bottom-right corner of the keyboard. Its purpose is to allow users to navigate between pages without having to use their fingers. It was first introduced in Apple computers in 1996.

Touchpads are similar to mice, except they do not require any moving parts. Instead, touchpads detect finger movements over their surface.

Light Pen

A light pen is a device that uses a light beam to trace over paper or any other surface. A light pen is useful for drawing, sketching, writing notes, and even playing games. There are many different types of light pens available today. You can find them at any art supply store.

Based on Image and Video Input

These are the devices that use Image and Video Input:

Scanners

A scanner is a device that converts images into digital data. A scanner may be connected directly to a computer or may use a cable to connect to a printer or fax machine. Scanners are used to scan documents, photographs, drawings, etc., and convert them into electronic files.

Digital Camera

A digital Camera is an input device that is used to capture pictures. Digital cameras are widely used because they allow us to take pictures without having to carry around bulky film cameras. They also provide convenience and ease of use.

A digital camera uses a CCD (Charge-Coupled Device) or CMOS (Complementary Metal Oxide Semiconductor) image sensor to capture images. These sensors convert photons into electrons, which are then converted into a voltage signal.

Webcam

Webcams are input devices that capture visual and audio information and transmit it to a computer for processing.

They use a lens to capture light, converting it into digital data, while a built-in microphone picks up audio. This data then travels through a USB cable or wirelessly, reaching your computer for processing.

Based on Audio Input

These devices use audio input to show iutput.

Microphones

Microphones are electronic components that convert sounds into electrical signals. The audio can be speech, song, or any other form. Microphones are used to enter the audio into the computer.

It converts the analog signal into digital which the computer understands.

List of Input Devices of Computer

What is Keyboard in Computer? \| Types of keyboard	What is Scanner in Computer?- Types of the scanner
What is a Pointing Device? \| Types of Pointing Devices	What is a Computer Mouse?-Types of Computer Mouse
What is OCR in Computer?–Uses of OCR	Optical Readers-OCR, OMR, MICR, And Barcode Reader
What are Barcodes?-Barcode Reader, Types of Barcode Scanners

Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs)

What is an input device with examples?

Input devices are hardware devices used to enter input (data and instructions) into electronic devices. For example, Keyboard, mouse, etc.

What are the 6 types of input devices?

·         Keyboard
·         Mouse
·         Pointing devices
·         Microphone
·         Webcam
·         Scanners

What is the main input device of a computer?

The keyboard is the most important input device. Most of the data is entered through the keyboard.

Is the scanner input or output device?

Yes, the scanner is an input device. It is used to convert text, images and photos, and documents into digital format.

What is a webcam used for?

A webcam is an input device that is used for taking pictures and for video recording and video conferences.

What is a touch screen?

The touch screen is a video display screen that receives input from the touch of a finger. The user enters input by touching icons or menus identified on the screen.

What is a digital camera?

The digital camera is an input device. It stores images digitally in its memory rather than recording them on film. It does not require film processing. The picture taken with a digital camera can be transferred to a computer.

What is input?

Anything given to the computer is called input such as data or instructions. Computers take input and convert it into information after processing.

What is a light pen simple definition?

A light pen is a light-sensitive input device used to interact with a computer through a cathode ray tube display. It is used to select or modify data on the screen.

What is a WAN Network? – Advantages and Disadvantages of Wide Area Network

August 17, 2022 by Sehrish Basharat Leave a Comment

WAN stands for Wide Area Network. A WAN network is a computer network that connects computers over a wide geographic area. WAN networks are commonly used to connect offices and remote sites together.

Computers in a WAN are often connected through telephone lines. WANs can be a great way to connect to parts of the world that might be out of reach for a LAN. They can also help to connect two or more LANs together, which can come in handy for businesses with multiple locations. WAN is more expensive than LAN. WAN is not as fast as LAN.

The typical transmission rate for a WAN is anywhere from 56 Kbps to 50 Mbps. This means that you can expect your data to travel at around those speeds when using this type of network.

A network is like a group of roads that lead from one place to another. It can be used for different things, like connecting ATMs of a bank located in different cities, or NADRA offices in different cities of Pakistan.
Internet connects millions of users all over the world to share information

Advantages of WAN

Some important advantages of WAN are as follows:

Communication Facility

A large company may operate in multiple locations in a country. The employees can communicate within their establishments using a Wide Area Network (WAN). It saves long-distance phone calls. Videos can be transmitted during conversations.

WAN is another use of the internet, where users can communicate with each other by using the computer systems in their area.

Remote Data Entry

One of the great things about working in a WAN environment is that you can be based in any location and still have access to all of the data you need. For example, if you’re based in Faisalabad but need to access data located in Karachi, you can do so easily through the WAN. This makes working with remote data a breeze and helps you stay organized no matter where you are.

Centralized data

In order to face the internationally expanding business, we need to access all data from the centralized server. By installing WAN, you can access the entire data from all over the world in real-time. It is true that the WAN offers many advantages over LAN. It is cost-effective, reliable, and more secure.

Entertainment

WAN can be a great way to facilitate many types of games and entertainment for users. For example, the Internet is a great source of entertainment. There are many multiplayer games that can be played over WAN.

Disadvantages of WAN

Some important disadvantages of WAN are as follows:

Hardware, Software & Setup Costs

When it comes to setting up a WAN, there’s a lot that goes into it. You need to invest in hardware, software, and manpower, and the costs can add up quickly. However, if you take the time to plan and design your WAN correctly, it can pay off in the long run.

Hardware & Software Management Costs

Managing a WAN can be complex and requires managers to have specialized training. As a result, companies often employ network managers to handle this type of work.

Data Security Concerns:

A poorly-secured WAN puts critical data at risk.

It may expose data to hackers, unauthorized access, and even sabotage. The virus can spread quickly across the WAN if it enters the central backing store. The reason for this is it has the ability to replicate itself and change the program code to its own unique code. This is a very dangerous virus indeed.

Failure of Server

If a server fails, all computers connected to the server are affected. It can cause big problems for the computers that are connected to it.

Electronics-Definition, Branches, Circuits, And Applications

August 16, 2022 by Adeel Abbas Leave a Comment

Electronics is a branch of physics that deals with practical applications of the movement of electrons through vacuum, gas, and semiconductor devices.

What is Electronics in Physics?

The branch of applied physics describes the principles and ways by which we control the flow of electrons in circuits. The advancement of electronics during recent years has been due to the development of semi-conductors devices such as junction diodes, transistors, and integrated circuits (ICs), Invention of integrated circuits in 1969 was a step further that resulted in the development of the microprocessor in 1971.

Silicon is widely used in the electronics industry and is the basic material for integrated circuits called chips. These chips are used in analog as well as digital electronics.

Electronics has wide applications in almost every field electronic devices, microwave-oven, washing machines, cameras, digital watches, mobile and digital phones, calculators, computers, medical equipment, industrial equipment, education, research, defense, communication, etc.

It had a huge influence on the development of modern society. The field of electronics and the electron age began in 1897 with the identification of the electron and the subsequent invention of the vacuum tube.

Thermionic valves were the first active electronic components that controlled current flow by influencing the flow of individual electrons and were responsible for the electronic revolution of the first half of the twentieth century.

The early growth of electronics was rapid, and by the 1920s, commercial radio broadcasting and communications were becoming widespread and electronic amplifiers were being used in such diverse applications as long-distance telephony and the music recording industry.

Branches of Electronics

There are different Branches in electronics given below:

Digital Electronics
Analog Electronics
Microelectronics
Circuit design
Integrated circuits
Power Electronics
Optoelectronics
Semiconductor devices
Embedded systems
Audio electronics
Telecommunications
Nanoelectronics
Bioelectronics

Electronic Component

Any component in an electronic system that is active or passive is an electronic component. To make an electronic circuit with a particular function, components are connected together by being soldered to a printed circuit board.

Components can be packaged singly or integrated circuits in more complex groups. Capacitors, inductors, resistors, and transistors are passive electronic components, while transistors, and their derivatives, are active electronic components.

Types of Electronics Circuits

There are two types of electronic circuits.

Analog circuits

Many non-linear effects are used in analog circuits, which is why they are sometimes called linear circuits. Some of the best examples of analog circuits are vacuum tubes and transistor amplifiers.

Modern circuits are rarely entirely analog and may use digital or even microprocessor techniques to improve their performance. This type of circuit is referred to as a mixed signal.

Digital circuits

A digital circuit is an electric circuit based on a number of voltages. The basis of all digital computers is digital circuits, which are the most common physical representation of Boolean algebra. In the context of digital circuits, the terms “digital circuit”, “digital system” and “logic” are often used by engineers.

Applications of Electronics

Electronics play a major role around us in our day-to-day lives. Any time you look around, you can find at least one device that works with electricity. Electronics have become a part of our daily lives. Let us know what applications the electronics are used for.

In the automobile industry, electronics are used in everything from engine control to car-entertainment systems. In utility systems, it is used in boiler feed pumps, high-voltage DC transmission, static circuit breakers, and smart grid systems. There is an important role for electronics in the aerospace industry.

Electronics are used in many activities in the healthcare sector. Electricity is used in the Electrocardiogram (ECG), X-ray, and many other procedures. The advancement of technology can be accomplished thanks to electronics.

There is a possibility of robotic checkups due to the electronics. Air conditioners, elevators, lights, laptops, printers, fax machines, and desktops are some of the appliances that use electronics in office spaces.

The agriculture of our country is dependent on electricity for watering crops, and it is also used for remote monitoring of crops.

The internet is a concept that has changed the world, electricity is the key to internet operation. Electricity is needed to transfer data from a server to the computers and from computers to the server.

Food can be stored in temperature-controlled storage with the use of electronics. Entertainment is one of the sectors that are dependent on electricity.

Projector screens, televisions, radios, cameras, mp3 or mp4 portable players, smartphones, and iPods all use electricity to operate. 3D and 2D images are developed with electronic media in the image processing field.

Disadvantages of Electronics

Electronic circuits that generate heat must be cooled, otherwise, they will fail immediately and cause poor reliability. To reduce heat dissipation it’s usually done by passive conduction or convection.

Heat sinks and fans for air cooling, and other types of computer cooling such as water cooling. An unwanted interference on a useful signal that obscures its information content is known as electronic noise.

Signal distortions caused by circuits and noise are completely different things. Sound as well as light is generated by electricity. The noise is caused by the interference caused by the electrical current.

The operating temperature of the circuit could be lowered to reduce this. Shot noise is a type of noise that can’t be removed because of limitations in physical properties.

Related FAQs

How is electronics classified?

Electronics is divided into two categories:
Physical Electronics
Electronics Engineering

How many Branches of Electronics have?

There are many branches in electronics. Some of them are given below:
Digital Electronics
Analog Electronics
Microelectronics
Circuit design
Integrated circuits

What is the use of silicone in electronics?

Silicon is widely used in the electronics industry and is the basic material for integrated circuits called chips. These chips are used in analog as well as digital electronics.

Name the component used in electronics?

Capacitors, inductors, resistors, and transistors are passive electronic components, while transistors, and their derivatives, are active electronic components.

What is Electronic systems design?

Electronic systems design deals with the design of multi-disciplinary systems such as mobile phones, and computers.

Laser-Definition, Working, Types, Uses, and Safety

August 15, 2022 by Adeel Abbas Leave a Comment

A laser is a device that emits light through a process of amplification based on the emission of radiation. “light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation” is an acronym for the word “laser”.

What is a Laser?

Lasers emit light that is coherent, and this allows them to be used in applications such as laser cutting. Laser pointers and lidar are possible because of spatial coherence, which allows a laser beam to remain narrow over great distances.

The high temporal coherence of the lasers allows them to emit light with a very narrow spectrum. Temporal coherence can be used to produce an ultra-short pulse of light with a broad spectrum but durations as short as a few hundredths of a second.

How does a laser work?

The output of a laser is something called a coherent electromagnetic field. The waves have the same phase and Frequency in a coherent beam of energy. A basic laser consists of a chamber that is designed to reflect both visible and ultraviolet waves so that they reinforce each other. Solids, liquids, and gases can be contained in the cavity.

The wavelength of the output can be determined by the choice of the cavity material. There are mirrors at each end of the structure. One of the mirrors does not allow any of the energy to pass through them. 5% of the energy can be passed through the other mirror, which is partially reflective. Through a process called pumping, energy is introduced into the building through an external source.

An electric field can be seen inside the laser cavity at the natural frequencies of the atoms of the material that is being pumped. Between the mirrors, the waves are reflected back and forth. The reflected waves reinforce each other because they are reinforced by the length of the cavity.

The partially reflective mirror at the end of the cavity is where the waves in phase with each other come from. A continuous beam, or a series of brief, intense pulses, is what the output is.

Characteristics of Lasers

The characteristics of a laser beam can be categorized into four major categories:

Coherence
Directionality
Monochromatic
High intensity

Types of laser

These are some common types of lasers.

Natural lasers
Free-electron lasers
Dye lasers
Semiconductor lasers
Photonic crystal lasers
Fiber lasers
Solid-state lasers
Gas lasers

Uses of Laser

Examples of lasers include laser spectroscopy and gas laser. The first noticeable use of lasers was in the supermarket. The laser disc player was the first successful consumer product to include a laser, but the compact disc player was the first device to become common.

Laser communication in space is one of the uses of lasers. Cutting includes converting thin materials, welding, material heat treatment, marking parts (engraving and bonding), Additive manufacturing or 3D printing processes such as selective laser sintering and selective laser melting, non-contact measurement of parts, and 3D scanning.

Marking targets, missile defense, lidar, blinding troops, and firearms sight are some of the military activities. The LIDAR traffic enforcement is shown below. The forensic identification field uses lasers for fingerprints. Laser printers, barcode scanning, holograms, and bubblegrams are all commercial products. Laser turntables, laser lighting displays, and optical discs are entertainment.

Laser Safety

Theodore Maiman characterized the first laser as having the power of one “Gillette” as it could burn through one Gillette razor blade. It is now accepted that even low-power lasers with only a few kilowatts of output power can be dangerous to human eyesight if the beam hits the eye directly or after reflection from a shiny surface.

The coherence and low divergence of laser light mean that it can be focused by the eye into an extremely small spot on the retina, which can lead to permanent damage in seconds or even less time.

The Computer System-SDLS and its Phases

August 15, 2022 by Sehrish Basharat Leave a Comment

A set of related devices that work together to perform a specific function. The system uses many processes to carry out various duties. A series of actions carried out in a regular and predetermined sequence to complete a task constitutes a procedure.

Components of Computer System

The information system has different components

Software

Programs that control the hardware and allow users to interact with the system are called software.

Hardware

Computer Hardware refers to the physical parts of a computer system including the central processing unit (CPU), memory, hard disk drives, optical drives, monitors, printers, keyboards, mice, network cards, modems, speakers, power supplies, cables, and cases.

People/ Users

The user/ People is the person who uses the system. A user may use the computer for personal purposes or work-related activities.

Data/ Information

Data and information stored on the computer. Data includes text documents, spreadsheets, databases, images, videos, audio files, etc.

Communication setup

Communication setup refers to how users communicate with each other over the system. There are two types of communication setups: local area network (LAN) and wide area network (WAN). LAN connects computers located near each other. WAN connects computers located at different locations.

System Development Life Cycle (SDLC)

The SDLC is a systematic approach to software development. It consists of five major steps: requirements analysis, design, coding, testing, and deployment. Each step is performed to achieve the desired result.

1. Preliminary Investigation

A preliminary investigation is the first phase. In this phase, the system is investigated. The objective of this phase is to conduct an initial analysis and finding of the system as follows:

System Identification
System Scope
Alternative solutions
Feasibility study
Preliminary investigation

2. Requirements Analysis

System analysis involves gathering information about the system being developed. This includes identifying the problem, determining what the solution should look like, and defining the scope of the project.

The analysis conducts the following activities:

Need Analysis
Data gathering
Data analysis
Analysis report

3. Design

Designing a system is similar to designing any product. You need to define how the system will function, including its features, components, and functionality. You may also want to consider the user experience and usability of the system.

4. Coding

Coding refers to writing code. Code is written using programming languages and computer programs. Programming languages allow coders to write instructions that computers can understand. Computer programs are then created based on these instructions.

5. Testing

Testing is done to ensure that the program works properly. There are many different types of tests, including unit tests, functional tests, regression tests, load tests, performance tests, etc.

6. Implementation

In this step, the hardware, software, and files are installed. After testing the system has been implemented. It is also called system conversion. The following things are performed in this.

Direct Implementation
Parallel Implementation
Phased Implementation
Pilot Implementation

7. Maintenance

Maintenance is the act of keeping software systems running smoothly over time. It involves fixing bugs, updating programs, and making sure that the system runs efficiently. To do this, we need to know what the system does and how it works.

We then have to understand the code that makes the system work, and finally, we have to test it. All of these steps are necessary to ensure that the system continues to run properly.

Correcting the problems in the system.
Updating the system to fulfill the new requirement.
The working of the system is improved in this.